Daoism

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Definition

Daoism is as a set of historical traditions native to China that encompasses philosophical, religious, artistic, and bodily aspects. Etymologically, the term “Daoism” is a translation covering three terms: (1) Dàojiā 道家, the school of the Dào referring to the philosophical component; (2) Dàojiào 道教, the teachings of the Dào referring to the religious/spiritual aspect; and (3) Dàoshù 道术, the Daoist arts referring to artistic techniques, body techniques, or all kinds of techniques based on Daoist principles (Miller, 2008).

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Daoist ideas: philosophical dimensions of the tradition

The main Daoist idea, as the name implies, is the impersonal concept of Dào 道, the Way, which, in a positive and cosmogonic sense, is the metaphysical source of everything that exists. When defined through negative cosmology (in parallel with “negative theology” current in other traditions), it is the ultimate truth, or the Absolute, which words cannot express. This view is found in the first chapter of the most fundamental work of the Daoist tradition, the Dàodéjīng 道德 经, also known by the name of its attributed author, Lǎozi 老子 (lived approximately 5th or 2nd century BCE).

The Daoist goal can be seen as the integration of life with Dào, and this goal has been interpreted and developed in different ways throughout history. On the one hand, it can be perceived as suggesting the harmonization of humans with Dào in a naturalistic, artistic and even political way. It is thus the search for simpler and more spontaneous social and personal expressions. This emerges from the work Zhuāngzi 庄子 (approximately the 4th century BCE). On the other hand, Daoist teaching can be understood as suggesting a return to an absolute reality. The latter understanding is dependent on more spiritual interpretations of Daoism that are based on the Lǎozi. Predominantly religious readings of the Lǎozi have been produced since the 2nd century CE in China.

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The suggestion to return to an absolute reality (Dào) can be explained with reference to some main concepts. The ideas of yīn 阴 (dark) and yáng 阳 (light), which have existed for at least 3,000 years in ancient Chinese texts such as the  Yìjīng 易经 (The Classic of Changes, also translated as The Book of Changes), are archetypal concepts of complementary opposites that are manifest in the observable world. From these poles, which represent the basis of correlative thinking, a whole network of concepts (which cannot be exposed here), show that the world undergoes multiple transformations, and that this process can be exhausting for human beings (see Wang, 2013).

If human beings manage to follow the flow of the “structure” or the “principle” (lǐ 理) of that same reality with its constant transformations, they can live longer and better. For this, Daoism suggests that our actions be more natural (wúwéi 无为, literally: non-action). In order to be in agreement with Dào, our actions must be without effort and without intention. In addition, the idea of “zìrán (自然” spontaneity) suggests naturalness and simplicity as a model of behavior, an idea that is very much present in the Zhuāngzi. By following these principles, people will become shèngrén (圣人, “sages” or “saints”), an idea notably present in the Lǎozi.

Historical dimensions: The intercultural formations of Daoism

The Daoist tradition, when seen as a “coherent whole” (Robinet, 1997), has roots in ancient Chinese culture and covers at least 3,000 years. Its textual roots can be traced as far back as the Zhōu 周 Dynasty (1046-256 BCE). These historical roots were influenced by systems of ancient “Shamanic” practices (especially the fāngshì 方士and the wū 巫), as well as by the thinking of the Agriculturalist School (Nóngjiā 农家) and the Naturalist School (Yīnyángjiā 阴阳家) of that same period. In turn, Daoist ideas influenced many thinkers already in antiquity, especially the Legalist School (Fǎjiā 法家), and also maintained several disputes with the “Confucians” (Rú 儒), which eventually impacted the thought of both traditions (Confucians and Daoists).

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The first Daoist communities emerged from the end of the Hàn 汉 Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) onwards. Many of these communities still exist to this day, such as the traditions of the Celestial Masters, the tradition of Supreme Clarity (which emerged a few years later), the tradition of Complete Perfection (which emerged thousand years later), and many others. Although Daoist traditions which unified the three above-mentioned aspects (philosophical, religious, and artistic/body techniques), had existed since the end of the Hàn Dynasty, throughout history, many people tended to practice or study only a few of them. This had already occurred before the existence of Daoist communities. Today, many thinkers study only philosophical Daoist texts and are typically interested in Lǎozi 老子, Zhuāngzi 庄子 or the Yìjīng 易经 (Classic of Changes). The latter is a classic also attributed to the Confucians (Rú 儒).

Beyond this, there is a “Western” and modern tendency to omit other sources and to consider only the study of the Lǎozi and the Zhuāngzi as relevant for Daoist studies. This is partly due to the colonizing postures of the first European Christian missionaries to reach China (Clark, 2000; Kirkland, 1997). However, from a decolonized point of view, it is important to highlight the agency of other thinkers linked to this tradition in history. Daoist authors, or authors linked to Daoism, continue to produce works to the present day. On the one hand, most of these works have ritual aims, whether for liturgies or for more contemplative practices such as Nèidān (内丹 Internal alchemy). Most of the older works are condensed in the Dàozàng (道藏 Daoist Canon, see Schipper, 2004) or are based on these classic texts. On the other hand, historically, there are also many more Daoist discussions taking place on the conceptual level (see Cheng, 2008). Since Lǎozi, the distinction between being 有 (yǒu) and non-being (wú 无 or 無) has been developed, for example, by the authors of the Xuánxué school (玄学, the Learning of Mystery school, 3rd-4th CE). Basing their ideas on the Classic of Changes (Yijing), the Lǎozi, and the Learning of Mystery school, authors like Shào Yōng (邵雍, 1011-1077) established a relationship between the epistemological concepts of “tǐ 体/體” (constitution) and “yóng 用” (function of reality) on the one hand, and the metaphysical cosmology of “Xiāntiān 先天” (Earlier Heaven) and “Hòutiān 后天” (Heaven) on the other. In other words, these authors established relationships between the potential and the manifest.

Impact of Daoism on Culture and Philosophy

The above Daoist works and concepts had a deep impact on the entire history of Chinese and East Asian ideas, and influenced other philosophical traditions for over two millennia, such as Confucianism, East Asian Buddhism, or the Kyoto School. In addition, several poetic, visual, literary and bodily expressions from China and the rest of East Asia have Daoist philosophical concepts as a reference. Among them are the poetry of Lǐ Bái 李白 (701–762), the paintings of Shí Tāo 石涛 (1642–1707), literary classics such as Xīyóujì 西游记 (Journey to the West, 16th century), and the practices of Qìgōng 气功 (Breath work).

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Since the end of the 20th century, we observe a renewed interest in Daoist philosophers, especially in the Lǎozi and the Zhuāngzi. This is manifest through a large number of new books, dissertations, and articles on these authors, not only in Asian countries such as China, Singapore, or Korea, but also in Germany, the USA, and Brazil. Daoist ideas such as the concept of natural action (wúwéi) or spontaneity (zìrán), have become relevant to the philosophical approaches to contemporary issues around the world. Examples can be found in the question of social identity as “genuine pretending“ (Moeller, 2020), the practice of doubting as a therapeutic philosophical posture in the face of life’s uncertainties (see Van Norden, 2011, 2018), or in the way education transcends language in order to concern itself with more attentive, spontaneous, and direct learning (Corrêa, 2017).

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